Chemicals / Complex Chemical Agents/ Chemical:
Lidocaine (Lignocaine) (with special reference to Ruminants, Hedgehogs and Elephants)

INFORMATION AVAILABLE

GENERAL CHEMICAL INFORMATION THERAPEUTIC INFORMATION  [DOSE, FREQUENCY & ROUTE]

NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION
TOXICITY INFORMATION ENVIRONMENTAL INFORMATION
Information in this page has been entered to support the current volumes of Wildpro and further information will be added as new volumes are completed. This page is not intended to substitute for the manufacturer's data sheet and the information is not yet complete for all species, or for all contra-indications etc.

CAUTION: Before any pharmaceutical product is used, the manufacturer's data sheet, containing information on uses, dosage and administration, contra-indications, warnings etc., should always be consulted. It is important to remember that licensing of pharmaceutical products for use in a particular species/condition, as well as mandatory meat and milk withdrawal times for food-producing animals, varies between countries and changes with time. Withdrawal times also may vary between different pharmaceutical formulations and depending on route of administration. In the EU, the prescription cascade must be followed (see LCofC1.2H and W564.Apr05.w1); note that specific restrictions apply for food-producing animals. In the USA, FARAD may be consulted regarding residues and meat and milk withdrawal times.

General Chemical Information

Summary 
Local anaesthetic and anti-dysrhythmic agent, also useful against post-operative ileus. (B263)

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Names and Formulae
Type Amino amine local anaesthetic agent. (B205.10.w10)
Alternative Names
  • Lidocaine HCl, lignocaine HCl (B263)
  • Note: Lidocaine is the recommended International Non-Proprietary Name (rINN); lignocaine is the former British Approved Name. (B373)
  • N-diethylaminoacetyl-2,6,xylidine hydrochloride. (B205.10.w10)
  • "2-(Diethylamino)-N-(2,6-dimethylphenyl)acetamide; 2-Diethylamino-2',6'-acetoxylidide; omega-Diethylamino-2',6'-dimethylacetanilide; Lidocaine; Xylocaine; Xylotox; Leostesin; EMLA(R); Rucaina; Isicaine; Cuivasal; Duncaine; Sylestesin; Anestacon; Gravocain; Lidothesin; Xylocitin; Xylestesin; LIDOCAINE BASE AND LIDOCAINE HCl USP." (W324)
Chemical Formula C14H22N2O (W324)
Chemical Structure --
Molecular Weight 234.3406. (W324)
Related Chemicals --

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Physical Properties / Chemistry
Appearance

White crystalline powder, odourless but with a slightly bitter taste. (B263)
Melting point 66 - 69°C. (W324)
Boiling point --
Density --
Water solubility
  • Very soluble. (B263)
Other solubility
  • Very soluble in alcohol. (B263)
Acid/Base
  • pKa 7.86. (B263)
  • Commercial injection pH 5 to 7. (B263)
  • Commercially available infusion in 5% dextrose pH 3.5 to 6. (B263)
  • Weakly basic. (B205.10.w10)

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Pharmacology & General Information
Pharmacology
  • Class IB (membrane-stabilising)  anti-dysrhythmic agent. (B201.4.w4, B263)
  • Membrane-stabilising effect resulting in a decreased rate of depolarisation. (B201.4.w4)
  • Thought to act by combining with fast sodium channels when inactive and thereby inhibiting recovery after repolarisation. Class IB agents  demonstrate rapid attachment and dissociation rates to sodium channels. At therapeutic levels, causes phase 4 diastolic depolarisation attenuation, decreased automaticity and decrease or no change in membrane responsiveness and excitability. (B263)
  • As a local anaesthetic: blocks conduction of sodium ions in excitable tissues by diminishing the entry of sodium ions during the generation of the action potential. (B205.10.w10); blocks conduction in nerve fibres. (B201.6.w6)
  • Mechanism for enhancement of intestinal motility in individuals with post-operative ileus is not understood. (B263)
Storage / Stability
  • Extremely stable in solution; may be stored and resterilised almost indefinitely. (B205.10.w10)
  • Store lidocaine for injection preferably at 15-30°C; keep below 40°C and avoid freezing. (B263)
Legal Category (In UK) Note: Not presently licensed for use in food-producing animals in the UK since maximum residue limits have not been set. (B359.App8.w30)

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References

Associated Techniques

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ORGANISATIONS

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ELECTRONIC LIBRARY
(Further Reading)

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Authors Debra Bourne (V.w5); Gracia Vila-Garcia (V.w67)
Referees Suzanne I. Boardman (V.w6); Becki Lawson (V.w26); Susan Mikota (V.w72)

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Therapeutic Information

Uses/Indications
Activity
  • Anti-dysrhythmic agent. (B263, B331.15.w15)
  • Enhances intestinal motility in individuals with post-operative ileus. (B263)

  • Local anaesthetic:

    • Rapid onset. (B201.6.w6, B205.10.w10, B331.15.w15)
    • More intense and longer duration of action than procaine. (B205.10.w10, B331.15.w15) 
    • Greater spread through the tissues than with procaine; more effective penetration from injections made in the neighbourhood of a nerve trunk. (B205.10.w10)
    • Duration of action about 45 minutes. (B201.6.w6); maximum duration of action about 0.75 to 1.0 hours. (B322.3.w3)
    • Duration of action prolonged by incorporation of a vasoconstrictor into the local anaesthetic preparation (B322.3.w3): with adrenaline (5 µg/mL i.e. concentration of 1 in 200,000) about 90 minutes. (B201.6.w6)

 

Appropriate Use
  • Local anaesthetic agent. (B263)
    • Suitable for use in individuals showing sensitivity to ester-type local anaesthetic agents. (B331.15.w15)
  • Treatment of ventricular arrhythmias, mainly ventricular tachycardia and ventricular premature complexes. (B263)
    • Severe (life-threatening) ventricular tachyarrhythmias such as tachycardia. (B201.4.w4)
  • Treatment of postoperative ileus in horses. (B263)
  • Useful for topical anaesthesia, infiltration anaesthesia, field block anaesthesia, nerve block anaesthesia, intravenous regional anaesthesia, spinal anaesthesia, epidural anaesthesia. (B331.15.w15)
  • Note: 
    • Preparations containing adrenaline (epinephrine) are not suitable for intra-articular, intravenous, epidural or intradigital administration. (B340.6.w6)
    • For intravenous regional anaesthesia of a limb only preparations without adrenaline should be used. (B205.12.w12)
    • For analgesia of the teats only preparations without adrenaline should be used. (J215.7.w1)
Limitations --
Notes --

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Pharmacokinetics and Drug Interactions
Absorption /Bioavailability
  • Rapid absorption from the GIT and respiratory tract. (B331.15.w15)
    • Not effective orally due to high first-pass effect. (B201.4.w4, B263)
  • Rapid absorption following parenteral administration. (B331.15.w15)
    • Following intravenous bolus, onset of action within two minutes, duration of action 10 to 20 minutes. (B263)
  • Constant intravenous infusion: if given without an initial bolus, therapeutic levels may not be reached for an hour. (B263)
  • Intramuscular injections may be used in dogs if intravenous infusion is not possible (every 1.5 hours). (B263)
  • Absorption through intact skin occurs for the eutectic mixture of lidocaine and prilocaine, EMLA (Astra). (B331.15.w15)

As a local anaesthetic: 

  • Rapid onset. (B201.6.w6, B205.10.w10, B327.43.w43)
  • Medium duration; (B327.43.w43). More intense and longer duration of action than procaine. (B205.10.w10)
Distribution
  • Good tissue penetration. (B327.43.w43)
  • Rapid distribution into highly perfused organs such as kidney, liver, lungs, heart. (B263)
  • Distributed widely throughout body tissues. (B263)
  • High affinity for fat and adipose tissue. (B263)
  • Distributed into milk. (B263)

As a local anaesthetic:

  • Greater spread through the tissues than with procaine; more effective penetration from injections made in the neighbourhood of a nerve trunk. (B205.10.w10)
  • In cattle following injection into a hind limb vein at 10 mg/kg for intravenous regional anaestheseia, concentrations in the distal limb veins were high in the first five to ten minutes following injection (e.g. 140 to 4,666 µg/mL) and then decreased rapidly. In the systemic circulation (jugular vein samples) prior to release of the tourniquet trace amounts were present for example 0.03 µg/mL, but always less than 0.1 µg/mL. Following release of the tourniquet 60 minutes after injection, the highest concentration one minute after tourniquet release was 0.37 µg/mL and three minutes after release the highest concentration reached was1.48 µg/mL; after this time concentrations in the systemic circulation decreased. (J13.39.w1)
Plasma Protein binding / Storage
  • Binds primarily to alpha1-acid glycoprotein. (B263)
    • In dogs this binding is reported to be highly variable and concentration-dependent; binding may be higher in dogs with inflammatory disease. (B263)
Elimination Route
  • Less than 10% excreted unchanged in urine. (B263)
  • Metabolised in the liver to active metabolites (MEGX and GX). (B263)
    • Dealkylated by mixed-function oxidases to the pharmacologically active compounds monoethylglycine xylidide and glycine xylidide. These are then further metabolised to monoethylglycine and xylidide. (B331.15.w15)
    • In humans about 75% of xylide is further metabolised to 4-hydroxy-2,6-dimethylanaline prior to excretion in urine. (B331.15.w15)
Elimination half-life / Clearance Rate Terminal half-life:
  • Humans 1.5-2 hours.
  • Dog: 0.9 hours. (B263)
  • Half-life in sheep less than one hour. (J234.12.w1)
  • In individuals with cardiac failure or hepatic disease, half-life of lidocaine and of MEGX may be prolonged. (B263)
Drug Interactions
  • Physically compatible with most commonly used intravenous infusion solutions (e.g. 5% dextrose, lactated Ringer's, saline).
  • Physical compatibility reported with aminophylline, bretylium tosylate, calcium chloride/gluceptate/gluconate, carbenicillin disodium, chloramphenicol sodium succinate, chlorothiazide sodium, cimetidine hydrochloride, dexamethasone sodium phosphate, digoxin, diphenhydramine hydrochloride, dobutamide hydrochloride, ephedrine sulphate, erythromycin lactobionate, glycopyrrolate, heparin sodium, hydrocortisone sodium succinate, hydroxyzine hydrochloride, insulin (regular), mephentermine sulphate, metaraminol bitartrate, methicillin sodium, metoclopramide hydrochloride, nitrofurantoin sodium, oxytetracycline hydrochloride, penicillin G potassium, pentobarbital sodium, phenylephrine hydrochloride, potassium chloride, procainamide hydrochloride, prochlorperazine edisylate, promazine hydrochloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium lactate, tetracycline hydrochloride, verapamil hydrochloride, Vitamin B-complex with C. (B263)
  • May not be compatible with dopamine, adrenaline (epinephrine), isoproterenol, noradrenaline (norephinephrine), since these drugs require low pH for stability. (B263)
  • Reported physically incompatible with ampicillin sodium, cefazolin sodium, methohexital sodium, phenytoin sodium. (B263)
  • Compatibility is dependant on factors including pH, concentration, temperature and diluents used. (B263)
  • Level of lidocaine may be increased if cimetidine or propranolol are given concomitantly. (B263)
  • Administration of other anti-dysrhythmics may cause additive or antagonistic effects and enhanced toxicity. 
  • Lidocaine plus intravenous phenytoin may result in increased cardiac depression. (B263)
  • Large doses of lidocaine may prolong apnoea induced by administration of succinylcholine. (B263)

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Administration
Formulations available
  • 2% lidocaine (lignocaine) hydrochloride (20 mg/mL). (B340.6.w6)
    • Note: formulations not containing adrenaline are becoming unavailable in the UK. (B359.App8.w30)
  • Lidocaine hydrochloride with adrenaline (epinephrine). Concentrations of different preparations vary. (B340.6.w6)
  • In EMLA preparation (AstraZeneca, human POM), 2.5% lidocaine together with 2.5% prilocaine. Applied topically to the skin and covered with an occlusive dressing for at least 60 minutes. (B322.3.w3, B201.6.w6) 
    • May be used in animals to facilitate venupuncture by anaesthesia of the skin over the vein.(B322.3.w3)
    • Produces analgesia for a maximum of 5 mm depth. (B331.15.w15)
    • May be used for harvesting of skin grafts. (B331.15.w15)
    • Use is limited by the need to apply at least 45 minutes in advance of carrying out a superficial painful procedure. (P20.1998.w2)
Doses / Administration Routes / Frequencies See individual technique pages for recommended doses for:
  • Antler Pedicle Block (Local anaestheticTechniques)
  • Caudal Epidural Anaesthesia of Cattle (Regional AnaestheticTechniques)
  • Caudal Epidural Anaesthesia in Sheep (Regional Anaesthetic Techniques)
  • Cornual Block in Cattle (Local Anaesthetic Techniques)
  • Cornual Block in Goats and Sheep (Local Anaesthetic Techniques)
  • Line Block in Ruminants (Local Anaesthetic Techniques)
  • Intravenous Regional Anaesthesia of the Lower Limb - Cattle (Local AnaestheticTechniques)
  • Intravenous Regional Anaesthesia of the Distal Limb in Sheep and Goats (Local Anaesthetic Techniques)
  • Inverted L Block in Ruminants (Local Anaesthetic Techniques)
  • Local Anaesthesia of the Teat in Ruminants (Local Anaesthetic Techniques)
  • Lumbosacral Epidural Anaesthesia in Cattle (Local AnaestheticTechniques)
  • Lumbosacral Epidural Anaesthesia in Sheep and Goats (Local AnaestheticTechniques)
  • Regional nerve blocks of the foot in Cattle (Local AnaestheticTechniques)
  • Peronial and Tibial nerve block of sheep and goats (Local Anaesthetic Techniques)
  • Paravertebral Block in Ruminants (Local Anaesthetic Techniques)
  • Ring Block of the Lower Limb of Ruminants (Local Anaesthetic Techniques)

In cattle:

  • By caudal epidural injection: 5-6 mL of 2% lidocaine hydrochloride. (B340.6.w6)
  • By field block injection: maximum 200 mL of 2% lidocaine hydrochloride. (B340.6.w6)
  • By perineural injection: up to 10 mL per nerve, depending on the site of the nerve. (B340.6.w6)

Experimental data:

  • In mature dairy cattle this local anaesthetic, in solution with 1:100,000 adrenaline (epinephrine), was found to have a short period to onset of action; the average period of analgesia was 4.2 hours for epidural, 4.3 hours for paravertebral and 2.7 hours for local infiltration. Duration of action was longer than for procaine but shorter than pyribenzamine or cyclaine. (J4.129.w2)

In sheep:

  • Effective for about 45 minutes, or up to about 90 minutes if preparations containing adrenaline are used. (B217.69.w69)

Erinaceus europaeus - West European Hedgehog:

  • 0.05-0.2 mL subcutaneously. (D107)

Elephants:

  • May be applied topically a sponge soaked in 2% lidocaine in the treatment of foot disorders. (B22.34.w12)
  • Five mL of 2 % lidocaine were administered by regional digital intravenous perfusion (RDIP), in combination with heparin and antibiotics to treat a foot abscess. (J2.34.w2) (See: Regional Digital Intravenous Perfusion in Elephants)

The following information is taken with permission directly from the Elephant Care International website (W580.Aug2005.w20):

Elephants:

a) Local anesthesia with infiltration is rarely attempted in elephants because of the difficulty in administration and the large volumes required.  Moreover, local anesthesia does not aid in controlling the animals. (Nayar et.al. 2002).

 

b) Lidocaine blocks were used in addition to sedation with azaperone but the number of procedures performed and the doses used are not specified (Ramsey, 2000).

 

c) To facilitate a vaginal vestibulotomy in an Asian elephant, local anesthesia was administered with 5 injections of 20 ml lidocaine 2% + noradrenaline intra- and subcutaneously in the midline of the perineum, starting 5 cm ventrally of the anus, with an interval of 10 cm.  The cow had been previously sedated with zuclopentixol (Schaftenaar, 1996).

 

d) In one African elephant under general anesthesia, paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia was detected and the procedure terminated when the arrhythmia failed to stabilize after multiple doses of lidocaine (1 mg/kg, IV).

 

Elephant References:

a) Nayar,K.N.M., Chandrasekharan,K., and Radhakrishnan,K. 2002. Management of surgical affections in captive elephants. Journal of Indian Veterinary Association Kerala 7:(3):55-59  

 

b) Ramsay,E.  2000. Standing sedation and tranquilization in captive African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Proc. Am. Assoc. Zoo Vet. Pages: 111-114

c) Schaftenaar,W.  1996. Vaginal vestibulotomy in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Proceedings American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. Pages: 434-439 Abstract: Due to its dimensions, dystocia in elephants presents a difficult problem. This paper describes the delivery of a dead calf by surgical intervention.  A vestibulotomy was performed under local anesthesia.  Complications in wound healing resulted in a permanent fistula of the vestibulum.  The difficulties in decision making and the interpretation of clinical signs are discussed.

 

d) Heard,D.J., Kollias,G.V., Webb,A.I., Jacobson,E.R., and Brock,K.A. 1988.  Use of halothane to maintain anesthesia induced with etorphine in juvenile African elephants.  Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 193:254-256  Excerpts: Sixteen 3- to 5-year-old African elephants were anesthetized one or more times for a total of 27 diagnostic and surgical procedures.  Xylazine (0.1 ± 0.04 mg/kg of body weight, mean ± SD) and ketamine (0.6 ± 0.13 mg/kg) administered IM induced good chemical restraint in standing juvenile elephants during a 45-minute transport period before administration of general anesthesia.  After IM or IV administration of etorphine (1.9 ± 0.56 micrograms/kg), the mean time to lateral recumbency was 20 ± 6.6 and 3 ± 0.0 minutes, respectively.  The mean heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and respiration rate during all procedures was 50 ± 12 beats/min, 106 ± 19 mm of Hg, and 10 ± 3 breaths/min, respectively. 

Cardiac arrhythmias were detected during 2 procedures.  In one elephant paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia was detected and the procedure terminated when the arrhythmia failed to stabilize after multiple doses of lidocaine (1 mg/kg, IV).  In another elephant, second degree atrioventricular block returned to normal sinus rhythm after IV administration of atropine (0.04 mg/kg).

In one elephant, low mean blood pressure (54 mm of Hg) responded to reduction in halothane (vaporizer setting 1 to 0.75%) and slow infusion of dobutamine HCl ((250 mg/1,000 ml) given to effect. The systolic blood pressure increased to 90 mm of Hg and remained high with a continuous infusion of dobutamine (5 µg/kg/min).

Immediately after induction in another elephant, profound respiratory depression (< 1 breath /minute) and palpably weak arterial pulse were identified.  Intravenous administration of diprenorphine at half the recommended reversal dose resulted in improvement of respiration and palpable arterial pulse, without the elephant developing signs of complete anesthetic reversal.  

Alterations in systolic blood pressure, ear flapping, and trunk muscle tone were useful for monitoring depth of anesthesia.  Results indicated that halothane in oxygen was effective for maintenance of surgical anesthesia in juvenile African elephants after induction with etorphine.  Note: A correction appeared in a later volume 193(6): p.721.

 

Monitoring parameters --

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Withdrawal period / Withholding time
Notes
  • No withdrawal time specified and no established residue tolerances. [USA, 1996](J234.12.w1)
  • "The rule of ten half-lives usually provides a conservative estimate that accounts for statistical variation within the population of animals treated." (J234.12.w1) Drug concentrations should have declined by 99.9% after ten half-lives. For this to apply it is assumed that metabolites of the drug, if present, are not excreted more slowly than the parent drug, that the half-life has been calculated according to the route by which the drug has actually been administered, and that drug clearance mechanisms in the individual in question are functioning normally; withdrawal times may not apply if an individual has a problem such as liver or kidney failure which drastically affects drug clearance. (J234.12.w1)

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Toxic Information

Toxic effects of Pharmaceutical Products
Contraindications / Precautions
  • Cats: use with caution - tend to be more sensitive to the central nervous system effects. (B263)
  • Contraindicated in individuals with known hypersensitivity to amide-class local anaesthetics. (B263)
  • Contraindicated in individuals with a severe degree of sino-atrial, atrio-ventricular or intraventricular heart block (if not being artificially paced) or Adams-Stokes syndrome. (B263)
  • Use in individuals with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome is controversial. (B263)
  • Contraindicated in individuals with atrial fibrillation or flutter. (B201.4.w4)
  • Use with caution in individuals with liver disease, congestive heart failure, shock, hypovolaemia, severe respiratory depression or marked hypoxia. (B263)
  • Use with caution in individuals with bradycardia or incomplete heart block who are having ventricular premature contractions unless the heart rate is accelerated before it is used. (B263)
  • In individuals susceptible to malignant hyperthermia intensified monitoring should be carried out. (B263)
  • EMLA preparation must not be used on abraded skin or on mucous membranes as systemic toxicity may result from rapid absorption. (B331.15.w15)
  • "Some manufacturers advise do not use or use with caution in pregnant or lactating animals, patients with cardiac or hepatic impairment." (B201.6.w6)
  • Avoid intra-articular, intravenous, epidural or intradigital administration of lidocaine with epinephrine. (B201.6.w6)

Preparations containing adrenaline:

  • Preparations containing adrenaline (epinephrine) are not suitable for intra-articular, intravenous, epidural or intradigital administration. (B340.6.w6)
  • For intravenous regional anaesthesia of a limb preparations containing adrenaline should not be used. (B205.12.w12)
  • For analgesia of the teats preparations containing adrenaline should not be used. (J215.7.w1)
Adverse Effects / Side Effects /  Warnings
  • Serious adverse effects are rare if the serum level remains within the therapeutic range of 1 to 5 µg/mL. (B263)
  • Adverse effects are usually dose related and mild (B263) and may include:
    • CNS effects e.g. drowsiness, depression, ataxia, muscle tremors. (B263)
    • Gastro-intestinal effects - nausea, vomiting. Usually transient. (B263)
    • Adverse cardiac effects at high plasma concentrations. Prolongation of the PR and QRS interval, shortening of the QT interval. (B263)
    • In individuals with atrial fibrillation, ventricular rate may be increased. (B263)
  • If an intravenous bolus is given too rapidly, hypotension may be seen. (B263)
  • Do not give the product containing adrenaline (epinephrine) intravenously. (B263)
  • Following intravenous regional anaesthesia, toxicity may occur if the tourniquet is removed early (after less than 20 minutes). 
    • Toxicity may be avoided by loosening the tourniquet for 10 to 15 seconds, retightening for two minutes and repeating this several times before final removal of the tourniquet. (B201.4.w4)
Operator Warnings --
Overdose / Acute Toxicity
  • Toxicity effects are seen with increasing dose and include drowsiness, tinnitus, dysgeusia, dizziness and twitching, followed by (at higher doses) seizures, coma, respiratory depression and respiratory arrest combined with cardiovascular depression. (B331.15.w15)
  • In sheep injected subcutaneously with 2% lidocaine hydrochloride as a flank L-block, total dose 20 mg/kg, signs of toxicity developed including muscle tremors, recumbency, dullness, opisthotonus, odontoprisis, mydriasis, blindness, extensor rigidity and convulsions. (J4.188.w1)
  • CNS effects including restlessness, shivering, anxiety and occasionally convulsions, followed by respiratory depression. (B327.43.w43)
  • Cardiovascular effects including bradycardia, decreased cardiac output and vasodilatation; cardiovascular collapse may result. (B327.43.w43)
  • Seizures, hypotension, central nervous system disturbances. (B201.4.w4)
  • Dog: serum level above 8µg/mL may result in toxicity, with ataxia, nystagmus, depression, seizures, bradycardia, hypotension.
  • At very high levels, circulatory collapse may occur. (B263)
Treatment of overdose/Acute toxicity:
  • May not be required for minor symptoms: simply cease therapy or reduce infusion rate.
  • For seizures or excitement, diazepam, a short-acting barbiturate or an ultra-short acting barbiturate may be used. Not longer acting barbiturates such as pentobarbital.
  • For circulatory depression: fluids, pressor agents and if necessary cardio-vascular resuscitation (CPR). (B263)

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Detailed Toxicological Information
Classification --
Acute Toxicity --
Chronic Toxicity --
Reproductive effects --
Teratogenic effects --
Mutagenic effects --
Carcinogenic effects

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Organ toxicity --
Bird Toxicity --
Aquatic organism activity --
Other organism toxicity --

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Nutrient Information

Nutritional Data
Sources --
Biological Use --
Recommended Daily Allowance / Recommended level in food --
Stability in food (Storage time) --
Interactions --

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External / Environmental Information

External / Environmental Uses
Use --
Formulation --
Application method --
Application Concentration --
Persistence of Effect / Frequency of Application --

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Sources in the Environment
Natural sources --
Human-associated sources --

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Effects on the Environment
Effects in the  aquatic environment

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Effects on land --

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Persistence in the Environment
Breakdown in soil and groundwater

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Breakdown in water --
Breakdown in vegetation --

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