Alternative Names (Synonyms)

Names for newly-hatched

Names for non-breeding males or other colour-phases

References

Species Author

Major References

Other references:
B38, B138

Aviculture references:
J23.13.w7
B7, B10.26.w2, B29, B30, B31, B40, B94, B95, B97, B108, B128.w4, B129, B139
D1, D8

• Wildlife and Countryside Directorate, Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions (DETR)
• British Trust for Ornithology (BTO)
• The Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology
• Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB)
• Earthkind
• The Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
• National Convention for the Welfare of Swans and Wildlife
• Swan Lifeline
• Swan Rescue Sanctuary
• Swan Sanctuary

• Waterfowl Management Guidelines
• Proceedings of the Waterfowl Information Network Conference 1999
• Wetlands, Industry and Wildlife
• London Waterfowl Project FAQ's
• Swan Sanctuary Code Of Practice

TAXA Group (where information has been collated for an entire group on a modular basis)

Parent Group

• Waterfowl
• Swans

Specific Needs Group referenced in Management Techniques

• Aggressive Birds (Category 2.) (D1)
• Grazing Waterfowl (D1)

Aviculture Information

Notes

• Swans are generally aggressive and territorial, particularly while breeding, and each pair should be maintained in a separate pen, away from other swans, geese and large ducks, although the pen may be shared with small ducks, as these are usually ignored by most swan pairs. Fences adjoining other pens should be solid or screened with vegetation to avoid injury from swans trying to fight each other through wire fencing, and should be as tall as the swans themselves, to prevent fighting over the top of the fence.
• Swans may be best kept on a large area of natural water containing aquatic vegetation, and the surrounding land. For a single pair, a pen of at least 400 square metres is suggested, of which half the area should be water and half grazing land. Banks should be at a shallow angle to allow easy entry to and exit from the water; this is particularly important if cygnets are to be parent reared. More than one pair may be kept in very large parks where each pair can establish a breeding territory. Swans appreciate water weed and grass, but other green foods such as lettuce and cabbage may be used as substitutes if necessary.  They are relatively slow eaters and care should be taken in mixed enclosures that they get sufficient food. Natural food should be supplemented with extra green food, wheat and pellets; limited amounts of bread may also be given.
• Good amounts of vegetation should be provided for nest building, with cover available for early-nesting species. Parent hatching and rearing is usual. Swans are able to defend their young against most predators, and their highly-aquatic lifestyle also makes cygnets less vulnerable. Unlimited green food should be available for the cygnets.
• If hand-reared, cygnets should be kept in a brooder with a heat lamp (to give 92°F in the first week), with sufficient room for the birds to choose their own comfort zone. Access to water for a swim is appreciated; this may be in an appropriately sized bowl initially (e.g. while the brooder is cleaned out). Starter pellets, chopped green food and for the first few days chopped hard-boiled egg may be given, and grit should be available. If weather permits the cygnets may be kept outside in a pen with a pond by two to three weeks old. It is important to ensure unlimited green food is always available and that the cygnets do start feeding initially (see: Stimulating Feeding of Downies (Waterfowl)), as there is a risk of Starveout.

(B7, B10.26.w2, B29, B30, B40, B94, B95, B97, B108, B128.w4, D1).

Species-specific information

• Mute swans are easily kept on large areas such as park lakes etc. as well as on water areas in zoos or bird collections. Territorial and aggressive, particularly while breeding (nesting or with young cygnets), when they may seriously attack humans as well as intruding waterfowl and even last-year's offspring if they attempt to stay in the area, this species requires a separate enclosure. Care should be taken in re-pairing after the loss of one swan, as a new female may initially be attacked by the male. They require a good water area.
• These swans are easy to breed, nesting on a large pile of vegetation, on an island if available; a large amount of vegetation should be provided for nest building. They usually lay eggs from March to June and may re-clutch if the first brood is unsuccessful. They require regular supplementary feed while rearing cygnets, unless on large lakes with ample natural food available. Juveniles are driven away in winter or spring, before the next breeding season and will have to be removed if they are pinioned.
• Starter crumbs should be supplemented with plentiful green food and changed to lower protein grower diet by three weeks old. Constant access to water for swimming assists in avoiding the development of leg problems.
• Hybridisation is not common, but has been reported with all the other Cygnus spp. (Cygnus buccinator - Trumpeter swan, Cygnus columbianus - Tundra swan,  Cygnus cygnus - Whooper swan, Cygnus atratus - Black swan, Cygnus melanocorypha - Black-necked swan); also with  Branta canadensis - Canada goose and several Anser spp.: Anser anser - Greylag goose,  Anser cygnoides - Swan goose,  Anser caerulescens - Snow goose.

(J23.13.w7, B29, B30, B31, B97, B129, B139, D1)

Aviornis UK Ringing Scheme recommended average closed ring size: W 27.0mm (D8).

• Stimulating Feeding of Downies (Waterfowl)
• Accommodation of Casualty Waterfowl
• Rearing of Birds - Artificial Rearing - Waterfowl considerations
• Catching and Handling of Waterfowl
• Feeding of Casualty Waterfowl
• Release of Casualty Waterfowl

Measurement & Weight

Head

Legs

Plumage

Newly-hatched Characteristics

Nest placement and structure

Egg clutches

Incubation

Hatching

Fledging

Sexual Maturity

Feeding Behaviour

Parental Behaviour

Driven off in autumn when plumage whitens or stay with parents until following spring.

Social Behaviour

Non-breeders and immature birds are gregarious throughout the year. Unsuccessful pairs may leave territory and join flocks prior to the moult.

Leucistic 'Polish' juveniles, being white, are sometimes attacked by their parents.

Sexual Behaviour

Predation in Wild

Foxes, crows and pike.

Activity Patterns

Adults

Newly-hatched

Distribution and Movement (Migration etc.)

From Britain and Ireland patchily through north Europe and central Asia to eastern China.

Varies from wholly sedentary through partially migrant to wholly migratory, depending on area: swans from coldest areas move south for winter. In sedentary areas may remain on breeding territories or join winter flocks. Sometimes move for moulting period.

South to Spain, Hungary, Iraq, Jordan, Egypt, Cyprus, Malta, Azores and Pakistan.

America (USA, Canada), Japan, South Africa, SW Australia, New Zealand, Faeroes (B38).

Habitat

Intraspecific variation

Conservation Status

Not threatened. Range increasing due to introduced populations (B1, B8, B38).

Captive Populations

Trade