(B7, B37.x.w1, V.w5).

• D15 - Secretary of State's Standards of Modern Zoo Practice

• Precise nutritional requirements (e.g. protein level, energy level, specific amino acids, vitamins, minerals) have been determined for domestic poultry for different stages of their lives. Such determinations have not been made for most bird species, although certain general basic principles and trial and error have been used to approximate the needs of some species and bird groups.
• It is important to remember that there are considerable variations in the nutritional requirements of an individual bird depending on internal factors such as growth and reproduction, and external factors such as temperature.
• Diets commonly fed to birds vary greatly depending on the types of birds (carnivores, seed eaters, insectivores, fruit eaters etc.) There are also wide variations depending on the types of foods locally available - for example apples are more commonly used than mangoes in the UK, due to cost and availability. A variety of grains and seeds, either separate or in mixtures, are available from many different feed companies.
• In recent years several specialist feed companies have developed a range of diets (usually in pellet form) specifically formulated to meet the nutritional requirement of different groups of birds, and these are now commonly used as the basis of bird diets.
• Even when feeding nutritionally balanced formulated diets, 'extras' in the form of fruit and vegetables, fish etc. are commonly added. Care should be taken not to imbalance the total diet by feeding extras. This may be particularly important when feeding small birds, as any one item may make up a considerable proportion of the total diet.
• It should also be remembered that food provided is not necessarily the same as food eaten.
• Feeds provided in captivity should be designed to emulate the nutritional content of the natural diet of the species being fed.  The information given on this page should be used in conjunction with the information in the sections on Feeding Behaviour, Natural Diet and Aviculture of the individual species. Where adequate information on the foods and feeding of is not available for a species, data on similar species may be useful.

(B13.3.w22, B96, V.w5)

• Precise nutrient requirements have not been calculated for most species of waterfowl. In general, food with a higher protein level (Proteins (Dietary)) is required for breeding than for maintenance, and extra Fats (Dietary)   and/or carbohydrate (Carbohydrate (Dietary)) may be required in winter. The protein level (Proteins (Dietary)) for downy youngsters is higher than an adult maintenance diet, but a protein level that is too high may be associated with problems such as Angel Wing, leg problems (see: Perosis, Calcium / Phosphorus / Vitamin D Imbalance, Splay Leg) and Gout. It has been recommended that crumbs with a protein level of 19-20% may be given initially, with this being reduced to about 15% from two to three weeks old (P3.1987.w1). 
• It should be remembered that nutritional requirements vary with the time of the year and the weather, as the physiological demands on the birds change. Requirements for feeding in winter when energy is required to maintain body temperature are not the same as during the breeding season or during the moult, when more  protein but less total energy may be required. Even within the winter period, energy requirements will increase in particularly cold weather, and will decrease in mild spells or if waterfowl are provided with indoor and in particular heated winter accommodation.
• N.B. the level of specific nutrients such as vitamins and minerals required is higher for good fertility, embryo development and chick growth than simply for egg production. Layers pellets may contain similar levels of protein to breeder pellets but lower levels of vitamins and minerals, and are not a suitable for breeding waterfowl. Some may also contain excess Calcium, being formulated for increasing poultry production, and may not be appropriate for waterfowl. (Vw.16)
• Particular attention should given to the provision of minimum daily requirements of; Biotin, Carbohydrate (Dietary), Choline, Fats (Dietary), Folic Acid, Niacin, Pyridoxine, Proteins (Dietary)), Riboflavin, Thiamine, Vitamin A, Vitamin B12, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K; and Calcium, Phosphorus (Compound), Manganese, Zinc.
• There should be awareness that diets should not be too high in, or imbalanced, thereby providing excess of any single ingredient, particularly  Fats (Dietary), Carbohydrate (Dietary), Proteins (Dietary), Thiaminase, Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Calcium, Phosphorus (Compound), Manganese, Zinc.
• Captive waterfowl are often overfed and obese. Ducks tend to deposit excess fat in the abdomen and around the heart and ventriculus. Overweight waterfowl usually do not breed as well and may develop fatty liver degeneration. Care should be taken not to allow Arctic-breeding geese, in particular, to become overweigh, for proper breeding. Fatty infiltration of the liver may be reduced by feeding adequate levels of choline chloride (see: Choline, Choline Deficiency) (B13.46.w1, B29, P4.1992.w1).

PRACTICAL WATERFOWL FEEDING

GENERAL FEEDSTUFFS:

Waterfowl are frequently fed predominantly on a mixture of pellets and grain, with grass and other green food  added for grazing species, fish for fish eaters.

Grain:

• Wheat is the grain most commonly fed to waterfowl in the UK, and is generally preferred by them when compared with barley or oats. Mixed grains (e.g. wheat, barley, rolled oats, maize) may also be used, with cracked maize being particularly useful in winter. Smaller grains, such as millet, rape and canary seed are used for species such as stifftails and pygmy geese.
• Unsupplemented grains, however, do not constitute nutritionally balanced diets and must be fed sparingly with pellets and/or supplements (Vw.16).

Specialist waterfowl feeds:

• Specialist feed companies now produce a variety of pellets designed for feeding waterfowl, including starter, maintenance, breeder and seaduck diets, with different levels of nutrients, particularly protein, in the different diets. Some of these diets are in their early stages of development (e.g. Seaducks) and caution should be used when feeding them, and the nutritional content should be carefully assessed (Vw.16). 
• A useful development is the production of expanded pellets which float for a period of time and hold their shape well for some time in water. These allow feeding in water, which may reduce scavenging by other birds and is advantageous to species which prefer not to come onto land to feed.
• Feeds designed for commercial ducks raised for meat production are not suitable as a long-term feed for other waterfowl.

Poultry pellets and other prepared foods:

• Traditionally, pellets designed for poultry, being commonly available at a reasonable price, have been used for waterfowl.
• A problem with feeding traditional compacted pellets to waterfowl is that they generally disintegrate quickly when wet, and must therefore always be fed out of the water. Note: Care must be taken if using diets designed for poultry.
• Turkey diets usually contain too high protein levels for waterfowl. and in particular feeds designed for rapidly-growing turkey poults have a very high  protein level: their use in young waterfowl, particularly species with a slow growth rate in the wild, has been linked to the development of skeletal deformities such as Angel Wing and Perosis.
• Crushed biscuits formulated for dogs and pelleted diets developed for trout, flamingos, cats and dogs have also been used to provide higher protein levels than are typically found in grain. Care must be taken as excessive protein in diets for waterfowl may be associated with renal failure, and also requires increased water consumption to remove the excess protein, so that short-term water deprivation may be fatal (J23.16.w2, B13.46.w1).

Green foods:

• Grass provided in a sward is commonly fed and is an excellent diet for grazing species, but is frequently not available in sufficient quantity in all seasons.
• Other green produce including kale,  mustard etc. are commonly used to supplement the supply of natural green foods. Dandelion leaves may also be given, and duckweed (Lemna spp.) if available. 
• Freshly-cut short grass may be given to waterfowl, but long grass is not suitable, nor is cut grass which has been left in bags for several hours and is beginning to ferment. 
• N.B. iceberg lettuce has a very low nutritional value, although other darker green varieties may have adequate values

Fish:

• Fish should be fed whole, not filleted, and consideration given to the requirement for Thiamine (33-35mg/kg Vw.16) and Vitamin E (50i.u./kg Vw.16) supplementation.

(J23.16.w2, B13.46.w1, B29, B37.x.w1, B40, B97)

GRIT:

• Grit is important for the correct nutrition of waterfowl and insoluble grit in appropriate size (e.g. granite grit) should always be available, particularly when grains are fed. Soluble grit such as limestone grit or oyster shell should also be provided, particularly in the breeding season, either in feed troughs or in separate piles on the ground (J23.16.w2, B13.46.w1, B29, B95).

DIETS FOR DIFFERENT WATERFOWL GROUPS:

• Dabbling ducks are commonly fed on a mixture of pellets (preferably pellets designed specifically for waterfowl) and grains. The addition of and green food is appreciated. Note: wigeon, although dabbling ducks, are grazing species - see below.
• Perching ducks are commonly fed on a mixture of pellets (preferably pellets designed specifically for waterfowl) and grain. Smaller grains than wheat, such as millet, rape and canary seed should be used for some species such as the pygmy geese Nettapus spp.). The addition of green food is appreciated.
• Grazing species (e.g. geese, sheldgeese, wigeon) do best if provided with an ample supply of growing grass; however, green foods including lettuce, cabbage etc., and alfalfa pellets, may be used as substitutes. In addition they are commonly fed on a mixture of pellets (preferably pellets designed specifically for waterfowl) and wheat, with the addition of wholemeal bread.
• Stiff-tailed ducks are commonly fed on a mixture of pellets (preferably pellets designed specifically for waterfowl) and grain. Smaller grains, such as millet, rape and canary seed are appreciated. These seeds often float on water, so that the birds can take them from the surface.
• Diving ducks (especially scaups, eiders, scoters, goldeneyes (Bucephala spp.), Clangula hyemalis - Long-tailed duck, Histrionicus histrionicus - Harlequin duck, steamer ducks (Tachyeres spp.), also Biziura lobata - Musk duck) require richer food than the common grain and pelleted feeds used for most waterfowl species. Specially designed seaduck diets have become available in recent years and work on perfecting these diets is continuing. In the absence of the seaduck diets, soaked dog biscuits have been used to provide higher protein levels, also high-protein pellets (e.g. trout pellets, flamingo pellets), fish such as eel, and meat (cut to appropriate sizes); this is less important if natural food is available, except for the larger  mergansers. Fish-eating ducks such as the mergansers are commonly provided with supplemented fish as a part of their diet. Suitably-sized whole fish are preferable, with adequate Thiamine and Vitamin E

(J23.13.w5, J23.16.w2, B7, B13.46.w1, B16.19.w1, B29, B37.x.w1, B95, P3.1987.w1, P4.1992.w1)

• In providing nutritional support for convalescent birds it is important to calculate carefully the actual nutrient requirements of each birds. This will vary depending on the size of the bird, its general stage of life (e.g. growing versus adult) and extra requirements for healing, fighting infection and regaining lost weight.
• Stress and trauma cause the release of hormones (including catecholamines, corticosteroids, glucagon) which act to increase the metabolic rate, with both gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis being increased if ingested energy is not sufficient to meet the increased energy requirement. The increase in metabolic rate is in proportion to the degree of insult (i.e. greater increase with more severe injury or infection). There is a rapid oxidation of  fat used for energy and body protein may be broken down to meet the increased energy needs. Additionally there is an increased requirement for protein for tissue repair and/or for the production of components of the immune system, both blood cells and antibodies.
• In casualty wild birds (e.g. injured birds, oiled birds etc.) it must be remembered that by the time the bird is presented for treatment several days may have passed since the time of the original insult and the bird may already have used most of its reserves by the time of presentation. The degree of weight loss present may be estimated by weighing the bird accurately and comparing this to the normal body weight for that species. Note: it is important to remember that the normal body weight may vary considerably with the time of year. The body condition of the bird as indicated by how prominent or otherwise the keel is on palpation is also a good indicator weight loss.
• Energy requirement calculations (following Quesenberry, B119.w3):

• The basal metabolic rate (BMR) in Kcal is calculated as BMR = K ([Weight in Kg] ^0.75). K= 78 for non-passerine birds and K=129 for passerines (compared with K=70 for mammals).
• The maintenance energy (ME) requirement, allowing for normal daily activity, maintenance of body temperature etc. may be 1.3 to 7.2 times BMR in passerines. For the purposes of calculation for convalescent birds, ME can be estimated as 1.5 x BMR.
• In convalescent individuals, there is an additional requirement for productive energy (energy for e.g. growth, reproduction, recovery from disease). For example, energy required for growth may give a total energy requirement of 1.5 to 3.0 x ME. The actual energy requirement in a convalescent adult may be as much as 2 to 3 times the maintenance rate, depending on the degree and type of injury or illness. The energy requirement should be adjusted to allow for this as follows (B119.w3):
• Elective surgery / mild trauma: 1.0-1.2 x ME
• Severe trauma 1.1-2.0 x ME
• Infection 1.2 - 1.5 x ME
• Burns: 1.2-3.0 x ME

• If a bird is eating voluntarily, a high-fat diet (Fats (Dietary))) should be provided initially, as Fats (Dietary) contains twice as much energy per gram compared to carbohydrates or protein (average 9 kcal/gm versus 4kcal/gm. However the energy:protein ratio is essential and should be considered (Vw.16).
• For wild birds it is important to consider the normal diet for the species and to imitate this as far as possible. For captive birds, the diet normally fed should be offered if possible, although this may need to be altered if it is not likely to be providing the required level of nutrients.
• For severely injured or debilitated birds a highly-digestible convalescent diet, given by stomach tube, may be required initially (see: Gavage / Tubing of Birds). A wide variety of products have been used, ranging from liquid enteral products designed for humans to preferred mixtures made up by individual veterinarians, rehabilitators or treatment centres. In choosing a product, consideration should be given to the normal diet of the species, for example meat-based products designed for cats and dogs may be more suitable for meat-eating birds such as raptors than cereal and fruit based baby foods, which may be more useful for psittacines. The volume required daily may be calculated as:
• Kcal required per day divided by kcal/ml formula = ml of formula required per day.
• This is then divided into several feeds per day. Note: there is a limit to the volume which can be given at any one feed (approximately 2ml per 100g bird) (B156.15.w15), and tube feeding is a stressful procedure for the bird.
• Initial gavage diet is usually a balanced isotonic liquid diet high in calories and with simple dietary components to maximize nutrient absorption. Warming to near body temperature is suggested, but care must be taken that food is not so hot that it will burn the digestive tract. This is particularly important if food is heated in a microwave as "hot-spots" may be produced in the mixture. Always check the temperature of food on your skin before starting tube feeding.. High Vitamin A and Vitamin K levels are suggested. Cultured yoghurt or lactobacillus preparations may be useful to enhance digestion and nutrient absorption (B24.38.w2).

PREPARED CONVALESCENT DIETS:

(PLEASE NOTE: This dietary information is replicated from the diet suppliers, or from referenced sources. They are provided as information and a decision to use a specific diets must be made using professional judgment. WILDPro does not endorse any particular diet at present, until full nutritional evaluations are available)

• Human enteral products may be bought in liquid form. Their calorific content may vary from 1.0 to 2.0kcal/ml, and the 2.0kcal/ml products should be used to reduce the volume which must be fed. Diets low in lactose are generally preferred for birds, which usually have low or zero levels of lactase. protein powder may be added to diets if necessary to increase the level of protein before feeding
• Monomeric diets (containing fatty acids, amino acids and sugars) may be used initially, as these have are designed for easy absorption.
• Polymeric diets are also available, and many are isotonic, which reduces the risk of diarrhoea developing.
• Baby foods may be useful. These are usually high in carbohydrates, with some vegetable fats, and are usually low in protein. E.G. Milupa baby foods, containing 422 kcal/100gm.
• Complan (Glaxo) may be used (B156.15.w15)
• Specialist critical care diets designed for birds have been developed, e.g. Critical Care Formula (Vetark Ltd).
• Convalescent diets designed for cats and dogs may be useful, e.g. Hills a/d.
• Formula designed by The Raptor Center, University of Minnesota: Prepare 30 % solution of Nutrical (Evsco Pharmaceutical) in electrolyte solution (30ml Nutrical plus 70ml electrolyte solution) and store in refrigerator. Mix with human infant "second food" series meat paste (beef, veal, chicken or turkey) in a ratio of one part solution to two parts baby food ( 30ml of 30% Nutrical solution plus one 60g jar of baby food). Tube feed 40ml/kg three times daily (B11.4.w17).
• Mother O'Malley's Crane Stew: 946ml (4 cups) warm water, 30ml (2 tablespoons) Vionate (vitamin powder), 80-100ml soy-based powdered baby formula (e.g. Prosobee, Isomil), 1/3 120g tube Nutrical (concentrated food), 59ml (1/4 cup) vegetable oil, 2 cups dry baby cereal, +/- crane pellets (chick or adult, as appropriate) soaked, blended (and for chicks strained)(B115.5.w3). (This diet may have excess vitamins/mineral supplementation, and is currently being evaluated (Vw.16))

• Convalescent waterfowl, particularly wild birds which may have lost considerable amounts of body fat and muscle mass  by the time they are treated, initially require a diet high in protein and energy to allow them to replace the lost fat and muscle, as well as for tissue regeneration in the case of injury. Diets should be returned to maintenance levels once the bird has regained lost weight and body condition.

PREPARED CONVALESCENT DIETS:

(PLEASE NOTE: This dietary information is replicated from the diet suppliers, or from referenced sources. They are provided as information and a decision to use a specific diets must be made using professional judgment. WILDPro does not endorse any particular diet at present, until full nutritional evaluations are available)

• If necessary a hospitalized bird may be tube fed with a convalescent diet such as Complan (Crookes Health Care) or Reanymyl (Rhône Mérieux) (B11.33.w1).

• A tube-feeding diet with easily-digestible protein and energy also may be made up as follows: 500ml Lectade Plus (SmithKline Beecham - oral rehydration fluid), 2 tins A/D (Hills Pet Nutrition - cat/dog convalescent diet), 100ml Ensure Plus (Abbott Laboratories - human liquid nutrition diet), 1/2 Aquavit (IZVG vitamin supplement, high in vitamins B1 and E) 200mg ferrous sulphate (tablet). The quantity to be fed will vary with the size of the birds. 60ml twice daily is suggested for a mallard, 150ml twice daily for a mute swan (B37.x.w1).

(B11.33.w1, B37.x.w1)

• Gavage / Tubing of Birds

• In the wild, birds would spend a considerable proportion of their time foraging. In captivity, food is frequently presented in a nutritional but possibly monotonous form, and may be consumable in a short period of time. This may cause behavioural deprivation.
• Food is also usually presented in feed bowls, troughs or similar (to reduce spillage and associated wasting, spoiling and encouragement of vermin); this unnatural concentration of food may lead to excessive competition between individuals, with a risk that subordinate birds may not get sufficient nutrition. Increasing the number of feeding points and spacing them at greater distances should increase the number of birds able to feed at one time.
• Persuading birds to eat a food which is new to them may be difficult. As a rule, species with highly specialized diets are more difficult to encourage onto other foods than are more generalist species, although many species show some degree of reluctance to eat novel foods or food presented in a novel way. Gradual transition to a new diet may be required for adults, or hand-rearing of chicks using substitute foods from an early age.  In social species, acceptance by one individual may be the key to acceptance of the new food by the rest of the group.
• Providing a mixed diet, rather than a monotonous but balanced complete food, may lead to an imbalanced nutrient intake in some species: given a free choice: birds will not necessarily choose a mix of foods which is nutritionally correct.
• At all times, consideration should be made in providing food to making the presentation of the food compatible with the normal feeding behaviour of the species being fed.
• The method of food presentation should also be chosen to provide environmental enrichment.

(B33.1.w1, B105.15.w2, B105.16.w3)

• Waterfowl vary considerably in their normal feeding patterns, including the times at which they feed and the proportion of the day spent foraging. Species may also vary in their flexibility and therefore their ability to adapt to routines of, for example, standard twice-daily feeding.
• Species which feed on items such as seeds or grain as a normal part of their diet may be more able to take in a large quantity of food at one time compared with grazing species, while carnivorous species may have a very small crop and require a near-continuous source of food. 
• For most species, the food presented should be finished within half an hour, although longer should be allowed for swans, which are relatively slow eaters.
• Species which feed mainly on animal material may do best on a pond which contains a natural supply of small fish and other animal material such as insect larvae and chironomid worms, providing food at any time, in addition to two feeds a day of fish, grain, pellets etc.  If possible, several feeds should be given each day to these waterfowl, or a pair may be kept in a covered aviary/enclosure with food always available.
• Food for diving ducks may be provided within in protective "cages" which may only be approached from underwater. Food may then be made constantly available allowing the ducks to eat little and often.

Natural food in ponds/lakes/streams:

• All waterfowl appreciate natural food, such as may be present in a large lake or if water is brought in from a stream or river.
• If natural food is not present, aquatic weeds may be brought in from elsewhere: they and their attendant small animal life will keep waterfowl occupied foraging for hours.
• However, many types of natural food items act as intermediate hosts for various parasites and control of these must be considered (See: Preventative Medicine for Birds - Parasite Screening and Routine Control Measures).

Provision of water:

• Water should always be available when waterfowl are fed, to facilitate swallowing and avoid impactions.

Distribution and feeding troughs:

• When feeding large groups of birds it is particularly important that food should be sufficiently well distributed to allow shy birds to feed. Containers of food on the ground should be sized to facilitate the dabbling/shoveling motion of dabbling ducks and may also contain water covering the food to reduce scavenging by pests such as pigeons. Broad containers at least 30cm diameter and a few centimetres deep should be suitable.
• Providing food in or at the edge of the water reduces problems for species which normally gather food on or in water and which may be out-competed at feeders on land. For example swans prefer to take food while floating, and ducks which normally feed underwater, particularly the stifftails and seaducks, will be more able to take their share if fed in water - which requires food items which do not quickly disintegrate in water. If food is provided out of water, swans and ducks may even carry feed to water to eat one beakful at a time.
• Depending on the type of food and the number and species of waterfowl, food may be broadcast over the water and/or placed into a feeding trough sloping into the water.
• Placement of troughs/hoppers at water level such that they may be reached by ducks while swimming may be particularly important for species such as seaducks.
• Food scattered on water and/or on land (depending on the species being fed) also increases foraging behaviour and acts as a form of environmental enrichment.

Feeding by the public

• Providing food in small amounts between the main meal times, may be of some benefit to the birds (J23.16.w2). See section on Feeding of Birds by the General Public on this page for further consideration of this topic.
• Expanded pelleted foods which float may be particularly useful for species which prefer not to come ashore and do not dive, while grain broadcast into water is useful for species which head-dip or dive (depending on the depth of water it is thrown into).
• Feeding seaducks pellets in troughs containing large stones may be useful to avoid bill overgrowth.

Grazing and green food:

• Grazing species such as geese, swans and wigeon should be provided with a short grass sward for grazing.
• If the grass area is not sufficient, as may occur with high stocking densities and/or in winter, supplementation may be provided by means of a heads of dark leafy greens staked into the ground, which provides a source of green food to be pulled at; similarly green foods such as a whole head of lettuce thrown into the water provide environmental enrichment to the birds while it is torn up.
• After a heavy snowfall even a small strip of grass cleared of snow to allow grazing will be utilized by grazing species.
• Note: Long cut grass should not be offered to waterfowl as it may lead to Impaction.

Special winter feedingconsiderations:

• N.B. In severe winter conditions, food should be provided close to the preferred resting areas of the birds.
• It is important to ensure that bowls of water are provided several times a day if the water is frozen or birds will not feed properly as well as being unable to drink.
• On small ponds it may be possible to break the ice, which must then be removed or it will refreeze very quickly.

(J23.16.w2, B7, B13.46.w1, B29, B33.4.w2, B41, B97, V.w5).

Feeding juveniles:

• Food should be available as soon as the young waterfowl show an interest in feeding or pecking. In practice, for birds being artificially reared or broody reared food should be provided once downies are moved from the hatcher to the brooder box or run. Food and water should be available at a distance from the heat lamp, rather than directly underneath it.
• Downies generally feed in daylight hours and light should be provided to give a daylength (and therefore feeding time) similar to that which the species would encounter in their natural environment. Goslings of arctic-breeding geese may be given constant light, while tropical species appear to do best given approximately 13 hours light, 11 hours dark, and temperate species need something in between, e.g. 18 hours light, six hours dark. Temperate and tropical species given too many hours of daylight are prone to overfeeding, with the attendant risk of the development of Angel Wing.
• For downies being parent reared, it may be necessary to provide starter and later grower diet within a cage-type structure designed so that the downies can reach the food but the adults cannot. This allows food for the downies to be available constantly without it all being eaten by the parents.
• Downies generally show preferences for feeding on objects which are a) yellow or green; b) worm-shaped and c) moving. These stimuli of colour, shape and movement preferences should be utilized in encouraging downies to start feeding and may be essential in encouraging artificially-reared downies to feed.
• Downies are often stimulated to feed if another individual is already feeding and this may be utilized by placing a downy which is already feeding with a newly-hatched clutch to encourage them to start eating.
• Species which peck at discrete food items (geese, swans, dabbling ducks, perching ducks, pochards) may be best fed on dry crumbs (may be slightly damped initially), close to water, with a running water system preferred. Addition of fine-chopped duck weed or dark greens and hard-boiled egg are useful to promote feeding.
• Species which sieve or strain their food, suck as stifftails, may do better provided with food mixed with water to form a gruel, and floating foods including small seeds (millet, canary seed, rape) and duckweed Lemna are preferred by species which sieve from the surface and do not dive much, e.g. Black-headed duck (Heteronetta atricapilla - Black-headed duck), Dendrocygna spp.).
• Live food may be important initially, particularly for e.g. seaducks. Food items such as water insects and crustaceans may be netted from water. N.B. such food items may be intermediate hosts for parasites : e.g. Daphnia (water fleas) and water shrimp (Gammarids) are intermediate hosts for Acuaria) (see: Echinuriasis (Acuariasis)) and Acanthocephala spp. (thorny-headed worms) (see: Acanthocephala Infection) respectively.
• Goslings and other grazing species should be provided with short-cut rooted grass (i.e. pasture), to graze on not just cut grass.  Since gizzard worms and gapeworm overwinter on grass swards it is important to use a fresh sward for goslings in particular, not used by adults or juveniles the previous year (See: Preventative Medicine for Birds - Parasite Screening and Routine Control Measures).
• N.B. downies may be reluctant to feed initially; this is a particular problem with some species and may lead to Starveout. Details of methods used to promote feeding behaviour are described in Stimulating Feeding of Downies (Waterfowl).
• (J23.16.w2, B7, B37.x.w1, B95, B97).

Food presentation for hospitalized birds:

• Feed provided for hospitalized birds should be as close as possible to the normal diet of the bird. For wild waterfowl in particular it should be presented in as natural a manner as possible.
• For most species (e.g. dabbling ducks, geese, swans) a choice should be available of dry pellets/grains on the ground, grain submerged in a water bowl and fresh waterweed such as duckweed.
• Different requirements of specialized feeders should be considered. for example, duckweed and lettuce may be used as "appetizers" to encourage feeding of swans, softbill food, insectivorous food mix or mealworms to encourage ducks, and fish or de-shelled shellfish for sea ducks. 
• N.B. For species which normally rarely come to land and should be being maintained on water while hospitalized, consideration should be given to ensuring food is available from the water e.g. using hoppers at the edge of the water, rather than forcing the birds to come out of the water to feed.
• The provision of a companion may assist in persuading a hospitalized bird to feed.
• Hospitalized birds which fail to eat voluntarily may have to be tube fed or force-fed solid foods (see: Convalescent diets  / Nutritional support).

• Stimulating Feeding of Downies (Waterfowl).

• Feeding of birds by the general public, whether in their own gardens, public places such as parks, or collections open to the public may be beneficial or detrimental to the birds concerned.
• Feeding and providing water for garden birds may compensate for reduced availability of natural foods (e.g. due to recent land use changes) and thereby enhance the survival of those birds over the winter period. However, foods such as peanuts provided during the summer may cause problems due to parent birds providing inappropriate food items for their nestlings.
• Additionally, there is a risk of disease associated with the artificial concentration of birds at feeding points, particularly where large quantities of feed are provided and, therefore, large number of birds congregate (P6.2.w1, P18.3.w2).
• In public places such as parks also birds may congregate where food is provided by members of the public. The birds, their droppings and excess food left uneaten  by the birds may all be perceived as a nuisance by some members of the public. There may also be possible public health risks associated with congregations of birds such as pigeons (e.g. Chlamydiosis / Psittacosis). Although some feeding with appropriate feeds may be beneficial to the birds, other foods, particularly in large quantities, may be nutritionally unbalanced and harmful.
• Within collections, feeding is often banned. In some circumstances, depending on the birds involved, allowing members of the public to buy appropriate food to feed to the birds may be a viable alternative.

• There is no doubt that members of the public enjoy feeding waterfowl, and that this can greatly enhance their visit. Opinions vary as to the desirability for the birds. Feeding of waterfowl in collections by the public, by provide food in small amounts between the main meal times, may be of some benefit to the birds (J23.16.w2).
• If feeding is not to be prohibited in a collection, it is best to provide food, which people are usually prepared to pay for. This encourages feeding of the correct sort of food, and the total fed in this manner can be calculated, with an associated reduction in the amount provided at official feeding times if desired.
• In park situations or other public areas it may also be possible to provide food in dispensers.
• Feeding of large quantities of bread, or mouldy bread, may be harmful. Notices may be used to give suggestions as to feeding and explain the harm that may result if the wrong food or excess food is given (e.g. the role of uneaten bread in adding to the nutrient load of a park lake and the increased risk of botulism and blooms of blue-green algae which may result from this).
• Additionally, it may be possible to designate a "feeding area", e.g. close to the car park or entry point into the site,  from which excess food may be cleared more easily.

(J23.16.w2, V.w5)

• Foodstuffs should be stored in a cool, clean, dry (low humidity) place away from vermin such as rodents and insects. Rodent droppings in feed have been associated with outbreaks of enteritis. Large plastic bins or galvanized feedbins may be used for storing food such as grain and pellets. Bins should be kept closed to exclude vermin, and spilt food swept up and removed to avoid encouraging vermin.  Feed still in sacks should be stored in a cool dry place. Sacks should be stacked on pallets rather than placed directly onto an earth or concrete floor. For longer storage, pellets may be kept refrigerated or frozen
• Manufactured feeds have a "use by" or "expiry" date, after which their stated composition (particularly e.g. vitamin levels) may not be considered valid. If feed is removed from feed bins by being scooped from the top of the bin it is advisable to completely empty the bin before adding a new batch of food, to avoid old food remaining at the bottom of the bin. This is good practice with any feedstuff, whether or not it has an official expiry date. If feed is stored in a sack within a bin, spilt food should be removed from the bottom of the bin every time a sack is finished.
• Periodic emptying also reduces the risk of food becoming mouldy. Mouldy food may lead to Aspergillosis, particularly in juveniles, or may contain mycotoxins (fungal toxins). Mouldy food should be cleared from food bins and never used for feeding. Food should not be left to go mouldy in enclosures and if mouldy food is found in an enclosure it should be removed at once. Food is most likely to become mouldy if it has a high moisture content and/or is kept in moist conditions, particularly in a warm environment.

(B13.2.w21, B23.17.w3, V.w5)

• If fish is to be used for waterfowl (e.g. mergansers), it should be stored frozen. A separate area, utensils and buckets should be used for preparing and feeding fish.
• Feeding excess food should be avoided, as food left uneaten encourages pests such as rats and mice, may act as a substrate for the development of mould. Excess food left  in water adds to the nutrient levels of the water and may be a factor in eutrophication.

(J23.16.w2, B7, B29, B97, V.w5).